Alkaline Earth Metals

The elements of Group 2, the Alkaline Earth Metals, are:   symbol electron configuration beryllium Be [He]2s2 magnesium Mg [Ne]3s2 calcium Ca [Ar]4s2 strontium Sr [Kr]5s2 barium Ba [Xe]6s2 radium Ra [Rn]7s2 The last element, radium, is radioactive and will not be considered here. Appearance The Group 2 elements are all metals with a shiny, silvery-white colour. General Reactivity The alkaline earth metals are high in the reactivity series of metals, but not as high as the alkali metals of Group 1. Occurrence and Extraction These elements are all found in the Earth’s crust, but not in the elemental form as they are so reactive. Instead, they are widely distributed in rock structures. The main minerals in which magnesium is found are carnellite, magnesite and dolomite. Calcium is found in chalk, limestone, gypsum and anhydrite. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, and calcium is the fifth. Of the elements in this Group only magnesium is produced on a large scale. It is extracted from sea-water by the addition of calcium hydroxide, which precipitates out the less soluble magnesium hydroxide. This hydroxide is then converted to the chloride, which is electrolysed in a Downs cell to extract magnesium metal. Physical Properties The metals of Group 2 are harder and denser than sodium and potassium, and have higher melting points. These properties are due largely to the presence of two valence electrons on each atom, which leads to stronger metallic bonding than occurs in Group 1. Three of these elements give characteristic colours when heated in a flame: Mg brilliant white   Ca brick-red   Sr crimson   Ba apple green Atomic and ionic radii increase smoothly down the Group. The ionic radii are all much smaller than the corresponding atomic radii. This is because the atom contains two electrons in an s level relatively far from the nucleus, and it is these electrons which are removed to form the ion. Remaining electrons are thus in levels closer to the nucleus, and in addition the increased effective nuclear charge attracts the electrons towards the nucleus and decreases the size of the ion. Chemical Properties The chemical properties of Group 2 elements are dominated by the strong reducing power of the metals. The elements become increasingly electropositive on descending the Group. Once started, the reactions with oxygen and chlorine are vigorous: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) ® 2MgO(s) Ca(s) + Cl2(g) ® CaCl2(s) All the metals except beryllium form oxides in air at room temperature which dulls the surface of the metal. Barium is so reactive it is stored under oil. All the metals except beryllium reduce water and dilute acids to hydrogen: Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ® Mg(aq) + H2(g) Magnesium reacts only slowly with water unless the water is boiling, but calcium reacts rapidly even at room temperature, and forms a cloudy white suspension of sparingly soluble calcium hydroxide. Calcium, strontium and barium can reduce hydrogen gas when heated, forming the hydride: Ca(s) + H2(g) ® CaH2(s) The hot metals are also sufficiently strong reducing agents to reduce nitrogen gas and form nitrides: 3Mg(s) + N2(g) ® Mg3N2(s) Magnesium can reduce, and burn in, carbon dioxide: 2Mg(s) + CO2(g) ® 2MgO(s) + C(s) This means that magnesium fires cannot be extinguished using carbon dioxide fire extinguishers. Oxides The oxides of alkaline earth metals have the general formula MO and are basic. They are normally prepared by heating the hydroxide or carbonate to release carbon dioxide gas. They have high lattice enthalpies and melting points. Peroxides, MO2, are known for all these elements except beryllium, as the Be2+ cation is too small to accommodate the peroxide anion. Hydroxides Calcium, strontium and barium oxides react with water to form hydroxides: CaO(s) + H2O(l) ® Ca(OH)2(s) Calcium hydroxide is known as slaked lime. It is sparingly soluble in water and the resulting mildly alkaline solution is known as lime water which is used to test for the acidic gas carbon dioxide. Halides The Group 2 halides are normally found in the hydrated form. They are all ionic except beryllium chloride. Anhydrous calcium chloride has such a strong affinity for water it is used as a drying agent. Oxidation States and lonisation Energies In all their compounds these metals have an oxidation number of +2 and, with few exceptions, their compounds are ionic. The reason for this can be seen by examination of the electron configuration, which always has two electrons in an outer quantum level. These electrons are relatively easy to remove, but removing the third electron is much more difficult, as it is close to the nucleus and in a filled quantum shell. This results in the formation of M2+. The ionisation energies reflect this electron arrangement. The first two ionisation energies are relatively low, and the third very much higher. Industrial Information Magnesium is the only Group 2 element used on a large scale. It is used in flares, tracer bullets and incendiary bombs as it burns with a brilliant white light. It is also alloyed with aluminium to produce a low-density, strong material used in aircraft. Magnesium oxide has such a high melting point it is used to line furnaces. Further Information For further information look up the individual elements. Data   Atomic Number Relative Atomic Mass Melting Point/K Density/kg m-3 Be 4   9.012   1551   1847.7   Mg 12   24.31   922   1738   Ca 20   40.08   1112   1550   Sr 38   87.62   1042   2540   Ba 56   137.33   1002   3594   Ionisation Energies/kJ mol-1   1st 2nd 3rd Be 899.4 1757.1 14848 Mg 737.7 1450.7 7732.6 Ca 589.7 1145 4910 Sr 549.5 1064.2 4210 Ba 502.8 965.1 3600   Atomic Radius/nm Ionic Radius/nm (M2+) Standard Electrode Potentials/V Be 0.113 0.034 -1.85 Mg 0.160 0.078 -2.36 Ca 0.197 0.106 -2.87 Sr 0.215 0.127 -2.89 Ba 0.217 0.143 -2.90

TIPS AND TRICKS FOR HP PRINTER INK REFILL KITS

Brand brand new printer ink cartridges price a substantial volume of money in general, as well as whilst printer ink cartridges from Hewlett-Packard can be pronounced to be some-more affordable than most, they have been still a small bit expensive. Thus, it creates clarity for the normal mechanism user to give regulating HP printer ink refill kits a great thought.
Buying as well as regulating HP printer ink refill kits do interpret to assets for the normal mechanism user. However, the downside of this is which if these refill kits have been used incorrectly, it can lead to lost repairs to the printer.
To have the charge of refilling printer ink cartridges regulating HP printer ink refill kits easy for the normal mechanism user, here have been a couple of tips as well as tricks.
1. Always buy an HP printer ink refill pack which is privately made for the sold indication which we have. Each printer section requires a specific plan of ink to duty properly. Feeding your HP printer with the wrong sort of printer ink will henceforth repairs your printer.
2. Never wait for for for your printer ink cartridge to go bone dry prior to we refill it. Always watch out for signs which the ink cartridge is using out of ink. If we wait for for as well long, the printer ink left inside the cartridge will burden the cartridge outlets as well as repairs it. Refilling a shop-worn ink cartridge will outcome at most appropriate in bad imitation peculiarity as well as at worse in lost printer conduct damage.
3. Make sure which we follow the instructions on your HP printer ink refill pack to the letter. If we do not follow the instructions carefully, we will usually finish up with a shop-worn cartridge, or worse, a shop-worn printer head.
4. In stuffing a colored printer ink cartridge, be sure which we fill the cartridge cover with the scold tone of ink. Failing to do this will outcome in lopsided copy results.
5. No one wants to get messed up whilst refilling an ink cartridge with a refill kit, so regularly line your workplace with fine cloth prior to we begin. Cloth will catch the ink as well as keep it from seeping onto the aspect of your workplace.
6. Got ink on your hands whilst refilling your printer ink cartridge? Do not be concerned about it. To mislay ink stains from your hands, usually rinse it initial with soap as well as H2O to get the additional oil of the ink off your skin. Follow it with a rinse of amiable whiten churned with water. And then, rinse your hands again with soap as well as H2O to get the whiten off.
Using HP printer ink refill kits have been really accessible as well as can outcome in substantial savings. But here is a premonition for you, though: If your printer is still underneath warranty, we will remove your guaranty in box it is shop-worn by printer ink from the refill kit. Also, we can usually refill an HP printer ink cartridge once or twice since the risk of ruining the printer gets as well high.